Mapping Tools 

These tools help people see the "big picture" by laying out ideas and issues spatially.

Overview 

Representation of Knowledge

            Information can be represented  in a variety of ways (e.g., in words, pictures, tables, graphs).  Each format delivers information in a unique way, and has its own strengths and weaknesses.  Often, the goal is to facilitate communication and understanding (not necessarily agreement) between people.  However, representations can also be used for learning, self-discovery, self-expression, and problem solving (e.g., class notes, poetry, painting, therapeutic writing). 

Visual and/or spatial representations such as flowcharts, conceptual maps, and node-link maps (described below)] have emerged as being particularly useful for a variety of applications.  Although there are many different types of such displays (see www.graphic.org/home.html for more information on “graphic organizers”), most use spatial information (i.e., the configuration or way ideas are “spread out” on the page) to provide not only organization and structure, but also cues - additional information - about how concepts in the display are related.

There appear to be a number of reasons why such displays are beneficial.  Spatial representations are easier to search and navigate than traditional text displays (Larkin & Simon, 1987; O’Donnell, 1993), and provide both spatial and verbal cues that aid both storing and remembering information (Paivio, 1986).  In fact, the brain has many different systems for processing visual, verbal, and spatial information (e.g., Gazzaniga, 1995).  The spatial information inherent in such displays may also provide a structure that facilitates the development of a mental model (or structure in one’s mind) for that information (e.g., Boudreau & Pigeau, 2001). 

Kintsch (1998) has suggested that there are certain levels of information provided in most representations.  Kintsch refers to meaning at the most basic level as microstructure (or detailed information).  For example, text describing the circulatory system may refer to a specific type of cell such as a T-cell.   Detailed information combines into general principles or main ideas (macrostructure).   In this case, text on the circulatory system may capture similarities and/or differences among different types of cells. Eventually, there is what the representation as a whole is really trying to depict (the situation model).  For example, the situation model for text describing the circulatory system is the actual cells doing the actual traveling, within the actual structures (e.g., capillaries and veins).  Spatial representations appear to make certain levels more apparent (e.g., main ideas or macrostructure) which, in turn, likely facilitate the emergence of the situation model.

            Our research group at Texas Christian University has focused on a particular type of  spatial graphic display called node-link maps.  Node-link maps contain nodes (to encapsulate information) and named or unnamed links (to show the relationship between nodes).  Although there are several different types of node-link maps, their underlying structure remains the same.  "Knowledge (information) maps" (or k-maps) are expert-designed maps that convey information about a topic area.  "Free mapping" is a technique that is more spontaneous and captures ideas as they are produced by individuals or groups.  We have also developed pre-structured maps called "guide maps" to facilitate individual and group discussions.  Guide maps have guiding questions within blank nodes to be completed by an individual or group.  Research over 20 years (much of which is referenced on this website) clearly indicates that node-link maps facilitate communication, learning, and problem-solving in educational and counseling settings, and that they may be especially beneficial for certain individuals (e.g., students with lower verbal ability).  With little or no modification, the potential applications of node-link maps are essentially limitless.

References

Boudreau, G., &  Pigeau, Ross.  (2001).  The mental representations and processes of spatial deductive reasoning with diagrams and sentences.  International Journal of Psychology, 36(1), 42-52.

Gazzaniga, Michael. (1995).  The Cognitive Neurosciences (Primary Editor).  Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 

Kintsch, W.  (1998).  Comprehension: A paradigm for cognition.  New York: Cambridge University Press.

Larkin, J. H., & Simon, H. A. (1987).  Why a diagram is (sometimes) worth ten thousand words. Cognitive Science, 11, 65-99.

O’Donnell, A. (1993).  Searching for information in knowledge maps and texts.  Contemporary Educational Psychology, 18, 222-239.

Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual coding approach. New York: Oxford University Press.